Youth policy has been categorized as universalistic, community-based, protective, and centralized, among other models. The universalistic model is characterized by leisure activities and education-oriented undertakings Its mam business is for the whole youth population rather than for specialized youth groups. In this universalistic model, youth is regarded as a social resource. The aim of this model is to foster healthy and sensible citizens who maintain autonomy, independence, and political participation. This universalistic model is predominant in Scandinavian countries - Norway, Finland, and Sweden, all of which have the tradition of well - developed welfare states. As a matter of fact, these countries have a relative short history (10 years - 15 years) of youth policy. Despite the tradition of the welfare state, civil society has played a major role m the execution of youth policy. In the universalistic model, youth policy is taken to have the same meaning as youth work, and the civilian social organizations which have a leading role In youth business is regarded as a decisive agent in determining the direction of youth policy The business of youth policy is assigned to a department, and there IS no independent department for the youth. Moreover, youth sectors which has been separated from the traditional area such as education, culture, society, and hygiene, IS weak or non-existent. Youth, as a convention, covers the age range of 13/15 years old up to 25 years old. In the universalistic model, unemployment and political participation are highlighted as the major problems of the youth
In the community-based model, the youth policy is likely to be seen as consisting of measures to deal with youth problems. The target group of youth policy IS disadvantaged youth. There is no independent administrative department for the youth, and the formation of the youth sector is weak. This community-based model puts an emphasis on the services of non-commercial groups that exist for social work in local society. The key aim of youth work is twofold. political participation and the prevention of social problems. England is a representative state upholding this community-based model.
The protective model sets an independent department In the government for youth administration The independent youth sector likewise exists. The target group of youth policy includes not only the whole youth population, but also the disadvantaged youth. The central task of youth policy involves the prevention of problems, successful Involvement in Society, and political participation. Both Germany and France are the representative examples of the protective model, and these two states have a relatively long history of youth policy.
In the centralized model, the youth ministry/directorate is established in the government. A significant youth sector likewise exists. This model apparently has a specialized group as the target group of youth policy The youth policy Implemented in the protective model simultaneously Involves two contrasting viewpoints youth as a problem and youth as a resource. The purpose of youth policy IS to develop autonomy and independence on the one hand, and to enhance the development of personality, social involvement, and political participation on the other Portugal, Spain, and Greece are typical examples of countries following the centralized model where the history of youth policy is rather short. In implementing youth policy, the role of public sectors is stressed more than that of the private sectors.
Differences in fostering youth leaders exist among the European states. Nonetheless, youth leaders are produced through private organisations, professional education, and higher education level Eventually, most of them are employed m private organisations, voluntary sectors, and local authorities. Their key Jobs include teaching of leisure activities, counselling, prevention of unemployment, delivery of youth information, education for the prevention of youth problems, and political participation.

Youth Policy in the United States

Youth policy in the United States reveals visible tendencies of taking the youth as a problem, and of stressing the function of social prevention. For this reason, the disadvantaged and youth from relatively low-income families are the mam target groups of youth policy. The change m youth policy direction IS no more than the change m measures to deal with these youth groups. In the past, both measures to cope with problems and the prevention of problematic behaviour were the major concerns of the United States, However, as the question about the efficiency of these are raised, the United States starts to have more concern about then successful growth and development In short, the United States now takes youth development as the major purpose of its youth policy.
In the case of the United States, no united youth policy exists m the federal level. Youth works are executed only by relevant departments. This means that the execution of youth work IS dispersed among relevant departments, and no department takes sole charge of coordination. There are two relevant departments for youth works. the Department of Health and Human Service and the Administration of Children and Families Relevant departments should secure adequate funding for youth policy.
After each relevant department finds its own business and secures the necessary funding for them, It executes Its business m such a way that it distributes the funds to non-commercial institutions and groups through a government agency Therefore, civilian social organisations actually take charge of the practical execution of youth works. The programs that the federal government give financial support to include the prevention of crime and deviant behaviour support for vagabonds, and vocational education and programmes
Donations from non-governmental private foundations have significantly contributed to stimulating youth works
Even though there are numerous laws pertaining to the youth, no basic law for coordinating youth policy exists. The Younger American Act (YAA), which IS pending at present in Congress, is the very first law devoted to youth policy.
The principal works that the federal government IS pursuing IS the construction of a '21st century community learning center,' 'JUMP,' 'Youth Opportunity Grants', and 'Youth Build.' The purpose of a '21st century community learning center' IS to establish schools, In cooperation with local social organizations, and make them playa leading role in promoting after-school youth activities What we should pay attention to here is that this project alms to establish the support system of services that coordinate learning and activities for positive youth development. In the United States, youth development, counselling to deviant/criminal youth, voluntary service activities, and Increase of employment become central m youth policy. The Important feature of youth policy m the United States IS twofold. First, the target group and contents of activities IS In the process of being concrete according to the given tasks. Second, by way of establishing regulations beforehand to settle how to execute non-profit institutions/organizations can be guided properly.
In the United States, non-commercial groups and universities are taking charge of fostering youth leaders. State qualification IS not endowed, and a private one IS taken to be valid. 'American Humanities' IS the course m which universities and noncommercial groups are coordinated to tram leaders for youth groups. Those students who study sociology, pedagogy, child development, or relevant majors are endowed with qualification after receiving the lessons of a major field, internship and teaching of an academic subject. In addition, there are courses for fostering leaders that are managed by private organizations and state research centers for the youth.

Youth Policy in Japan

In Japan, youth policy has shifted from one focused on countermeasures to one that emphasizes fostering the youth. The former approached focused on preventing deviation, protecting and correcting juvenile criminals, and managing problematic behavior. In contrast, the task of the latter is to build and maintain a sound environment for fostering the entire youth population.
Youth administration has drastically changed along with the government reshuffle In 2001. In the past, the countermeasure headquarters for the youth In the Ministry of Government Administration took charge of youth works. Now the Ministry of Cabinet has taken over this Job In order to coordinate policies of each administrative department, the Ministry of Cabinet undertakes administrative functions such as the drafting of plans (program), general arbitration, and pre- and post arrangement of policies each administrative department. Especially concerning youth policy, the Ministry of Cabinet does the planning, drafting, and general coordination for healthy fostering of the youth, while each relevant administrative department is supposed to share the implementation of youth policies
Japan is one good example of a nation with a well-developed local administration for youth Youth relevant businesses are assigned to individual departments of local self-governing bodies, public peace committees, and the board education. The central government holds a 'local self-governing body conference' of heads of the related youth departments where the policies of the Ministry of Cabinet and relevant central departments are explained. By doing so, Japan has developed a good harmony between the central government and the local self-governing bodies. The change from the countermeasure committee for the youth to the Ministry of Cabinet m leading youth administration implies that whereas the external size of administration becomes larger than before, It seems to be more difficult to exercise the power of cohesion and specialized measures
Unlike Korea which has the Basic Youth Law and the Youth Protection Law, there IS no independent law for the youth sector m Japan The law for the youth IS found on various regulations: for example, the Juvenile Law, the Law on Child Abuse Prevention, and the Child Welfare Law. Some movement has recently appeared to bring together into a law the contents of youth protection, which are stipulated m the regulations of the Dodobu Dlstrict.
Fostering the youth m Japan IS featured m the national movement of publicity/education activities Its main youth business is the 'Nation-Wide Kodomo Plan.' This is a three-year strategy to generate a good environment for fostering the youth, and to secure a system of encouraging various youth activities, along with the full-scale implementation of the five-day school week. The mam activities that this strategy encourages are learning experience, voluntary service, international exchange, and sharing of information.
The current Issues of youth policy m Japan are threefold: (1) the construction of the environment for fostering the youth m local areas m mutual cooperation with households, schools, companies, and private organizations; (2) the discovery of symptoms of deviation and problematic behavior in the early stage, and the reinforcement of cooperation with consulting institutions; and (3) the arrangement of
the youth policies which are dispersed m relevant administrative departments, and the pursuit of the synthetic youth policy through the establishment of a 'Youth Plan' which ensures the basic Ideas for fostering the youth as well as the driving principles for its practical implementation.
Youth leaders m Japan are diverse social education directors, sports coaches, labor youth leaders, guides for youth fostering, rudders in agricultural and fishing industries, and national youth movement leaders. These leaders are voluntarily nurtured through pre-arranged studies and training courses which are offered in their relevant fields. However, no national qualification exam is m place. In case of sport coaches, the regulation on recognizing the inspection business of function enhance their leadership qualification. Their education and training are managed by the government, local self-governing bodies, or relevant private organizations. There is no higher education institution. Relevant departments officially provide them with the funding for their education and training.

Youth Policy in China

In China, even until now, no legal system that deserves to be called a 'youth policy' has been developed. However, youth policy is practically executed through relevant laws, administrative regulation, and business documents. The purpose of youth policy here is mainly the Improvement of youth welfare and the development of their potential.
Although China has about 100 cases of youth-relevant laws, rules, regulations, and documents, It does not have any universal law or policy such as the Basic Law for Youth The Chinese youth-relevant laws certainly prescribe basic rights of the youth and the policy for their protection. The basic rights include political participation and freedom of body and religion. The special rights of the youth involve the right to receive education, employment, health, social insurance, and social welfare In the legal system, the protection of youth m the civil and criminal laws is clearly prescribed However, China should systematise its youth policy, and synthesise and unify relevant laws.
In spite of the fact that the Party and the government practically take full charge of youth policy m China, the most Important department IS the Chinese Communist Youth Committee. In the branches of administration, there is no specialised department for youth businesses As a result, the youth business is partly dealt with only in the context of the original businesses of the Department of Labour, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Environment, and the Department of Public Security.
Management funding for Communist Youth organisations above the district level comes from the government budget. As the government budget shrunk, so did the management fund. Funding for youth organisations is appropriated from membership fees, supporting donation of local governments and private companies, and profit obtained through independent management
The Important businesses of youth policy m China are ideological and moral education, protection of youth welfare and interests, fostering of competent youth, eradication of youth crime, and the development of extracurricular youth culture, all of which have something to do with the expansion of leisure and cultural activities after the reform and opening of China.
Chinese youth businesses vividly reveal the political tendency that reflects the characteristics of the state. There is no independent youth policy, since the Communist ideology comprehensively affects an social and political dimensions. Nonetheless, after the reformation and opening, youth policy is gradually shifting in the direction of meeting youth demands, which corresponds to political change The range of the target groups of youth policy ranges from competent youth to labor and even criminal youth. The contents of the policy are also broad m scope, including ideological education, enforcement of intellectual power and physical strength, physical development, protection of youth interests related to education, livelihood, culture, economy, and welfare.
The current task of Chinese youth policy IS to cope with the increasing desires of the youth and newly emerging youth problems. The introduction of a market economy can serve to increase opportunities for the youth on one hand, while entailing the consequence of putting the youth in a weaker position. As a consequence, China is supposed to devise some constructive measures to let the youth adjust to such structural changes. The existing model and system of the Communist Youth Committee have severe difficulties m meeting such an impending demand. For the time being, China seeks to develop its youth policy, while pursuing the construction of a market economy as the nation's priority.
For all this, China is making an affirmative attempt to embrace the international trends and principles of conduct for the youth policy. This attempt requires a major shift m the understanding of youth policy: that is, a shift m youth policy from the delivery of top-down orders that accomplish the demand of the state to the accommodation of desires for survival and development. This means that China should create a completely new system m which bottom-up demands are positively met. In order to complete this, China IS required to redefine the policy position of the Communist Youth Committee more clearly.
The system of fostering youth leaders m China consists of 60 schools that are coordinated around the Chinese Youth Political Academy. Although youth leaders are not supposed to have state qualification, the course of fostering youth leader is no more than the process of producing state elites largely working for youth organizations that have a higher level of social authority, and guarantees the successful path for the future. In order to enhance the professionalism of its executive members, the Communist Youth Committee maintains a post-graduate course, and encourages Its executive members to obtain the degree from this course Those youth leaders who have completed this course are normally given the opportunity of working with official youth organizations such as the Communist Youth Committee, the Sosun University, YMCA, and TWCA.

Youth Policy in Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, youth policy remains poor and inadequate. There is no central institution m-charge of youth policy, and indeed, there is no independent youth policy. Following the policy report drawn by the Central Committee of the Youth in 1993, the Commission on Youth is established as the advisory organ of the government It has worked out the Charter for Youth, and drafted the Idea and principal objectives of youth development.
Directions being considered at present for the development of youth policy are as follows. (1) The Commission on Youth acts as a bridge between the government and the youth service organizations as well as the business community by funding programs operated by service organizations. (2) Its role of policy formulation and coordination among government departments can be developed by appointing a member of the Executive Council of HKSAR as Chief Executive to chair the Committee. (3) The Chief Secretary leads the secretaries in various bureaus to formulate and Implement youth policies, coordinate among government departments and service organizations, and fund various youth services (4) An independent Body-Youth Development Center to be funded by the government can be set up to take up policy formulation and implementation

Youth Policy in Korea

Policy direction

If we define Korean Youth policy in the international level, it can be conceived as having a universal model. In Korea, youth policy has been developed and elaborated throughout time. Until the late 1970s, youth policy remained 10 the level of protecting existing regulations, and coping with youth problems. Until the late 1980s, Korea sought a shift 10 direction by which the development of youth potential and the assistance for growth were core factors. From 1988 on, through the establishment of a department taking exclusive charge of youth businesses, and the introduction and execution of a five-year plan for the fostering of youth, youth policy has clearly taken an affirmative and progressive direction from protection / guidance to support / fostering.
Thus, It can be said that more than 10 years have passed Since Korea made the shift 10 youth policy direction from preparation to development. In this respect, youth policy in Korea has become more similar with those of the Scandinavian countries.

Youth Administration and Funding

There are several independent departments taking charge of youth administration of youth, including the Bureau of Youth m the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and the Youth Protection Committee. Korea also has various agents undertaking training activities, counselling, public services, international exchange, and support of youth organisations Compared to countries that have no centripetal point as their youth businesses are dispersedly dealt with m the traditional sector, Korea has a relatively well developed administration system for the youth, like France and Germany. The central force of youth administration is the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In addition, some relevant government departments such as the Youth Protection Committee, the Ministry of Education and Human Resources, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of Hygiene and Welfare are also executing youth businesses.
The fund for youth m Korea comes not only from the central government, but also from local self-governing bodies. In the government budget, the portion of the fund for the youth is 92.1 billion won: 32.9 billion won to the Bureau of Youth, 5.5 billion won to the Youth Protection Committee, 20.3 billion won for fostering the youth, and 33 4 billion won as cession money to local self-governing bodies. This government funding is normally used for the execution of basic businesses for the youth such as the expansion and maintenance of social facilities for the youth and the publication of a youth white paper. The cession money of the central government to local self-governing bodies is normally consumed to assist the new construction and repair of local facilities for the youth.
Along with the cession money of the central government, the local self governing bodies mostly secure the extra budget to execute businesses for their own local youth. The total amount of funding for the youth that the local self-governing bodies secured in 2001 was 92.7 billion won, which was 0.6 billion larger than that of the central government (92.1 billion)
There is some difficulty m making international comparisons because no international report presenting the relative size of funding for youth m the whole government budget or compared to GNP is available. Yet Korea can be said to have a progressive funding system for youth businesses, considering the portion of the government budget for this purpose as well as the fund for fostering the youth.

Laws Governing the Youth

Korea has a legal system for the youth, represented primarily by the Basic Law for the Youth and the Youth Protection Law. The laws governing the youth m Korea prescribe the concrete contents of supporting laws, and define the limit of social and family responsibilities. They are categorised by the regulations for the assistance of families, welfare rules for the protection of problematic youth, and relevant protection rules for the youth.
The Basic Law for the Youth IS a supporting legislation that has a comprehensive definition to prescribe youth welfare, environment, deviation, exchange, counselling, and fostering fund. This is also a protective legislation to guard youth from harmful environments. The Youth Welfare Law includes the regulation of child welfare as well as protecting the mother and child. However, this IS not limited to the youth sector.

Key Tasks

The mam business executed m the first and second five-year plans for fostering the youth is the activation of youth training activities For this, many things have been pursued such as the expansion of facilities for youth training, development of programmes for training activities, fostering of leaders, and promotion and support of youth organisations At the same time, the activation of youth counselling, encouragement of the voluntary service activities of the youth, and the protection of youth from harmful environments are also undertaken
Impending issues concerning youth policy are as follows' increase of human rights awareness and participation which is still m the level of formal announcement; the specialisation of facilities for the development of youth training activities; the enforcement of the professionalism of youth leaders; and the establishment of an occupation experience centre for the youth that can inspire them to have a future-oriented insight of occupation, and that can also serve as a concrete institution of assisting the youth to pursue reasonable Jobs by combining play activities and preparing for real jobs.
On the other hand, the implementation of some countermeasures to the abscondence of youth from their homes, increase of drug abuse, deviation, and violence, and the expansion of sexual activities and problematic behaviour is also an Immediate concern. In addition, it is necessary to introduce some Judicial measures to reduce the exposure of youth to harmful media, places and establishments.
Along With the shortening of working hours, the introduction of the five-school days per week is being considered. If It is executed, it will drastically change the basic pattern of dally life Therefore, we are witnessing the rise of some urgent need to establish the social infrastructure on which the increasing demands for fostering the youth can be met.

Fostering Youth Leaders and Endowment of Qualifications

In order to become a youth leader, it is necessary to take the arranged national certification examination. The third class qualification is granted once an individual passes this examination. This examination IS open not only to university students who have related majors, but also to high school and technical college graduates with defined terms of field experience. Although potential youth leaders should prepare for this examination by mainly studying theories, qualification is enhanced m a systematic way, as a youth leader accumulates career experience
Youth policy In Korea has become well organized In terms of Its system and form, policy direction, as well as In the dimension of administration and finance. The target group of youth policy in Korea is not narrowly limited to the disadvantaged and problematic youth. As we know, unlike the United States, Japan, and France, many countries have no proper basic law for the youth On the contrary, Korea has developed a legal foundation of youth policy consisting of the Basic Law for Youth and the Youth Protection Law. Even though the sole department m-charge of youth administration is not powerful, it still exists, and is equipped with a deliverance system to coordinate with local areas. Moreover, Korea has secured the exclusive domain of training activity Despite such a system, however, the quality of services for the youth in Korea cannot be said to be high Like In England and the United Kingdom where youth policy can be executed dispersedly by various existing departments, and where there IS no Independent youth sector, the quality of services for the youth can be reasonably good or even better than some countries with different models The formation and system are only a means to Implement youth policy efficiently. Enriching the quality of the results of these youth businesses is much more Important For this, youth businesses should be drawn up and executed In an efficient manner that corresponds to social change, demands from youth, and individual and social development.
In the United States, youth businesses are undertaken m the federal level by legislating relevant laws and simultaneously securing funds its execution is normally assumed to complete over a period of several years When relevant businesses are considered, their necessity is supposed to be seriously discussed for a relatively high degree of accuracy. Once executed, securing enough fund for the assigned businesses, the planned Jobs are continuously put forward to achieve the set goal within the prescribed period. In this process of execution, the concrete goal and method of achieving It are presented in specific terms England also follows a similar process m the implementation of youth policy.
When we consider all this, Korea should elaborate a more comprehensive system of strategy that corresponds to social change and development and demands from the youth Korea should also find a way of executing youth policy in which relevant private sectors and groups are also involved.

Policy Suggestions to Korea

First of all, businesslike youth policy should be strengthened by way of expanding youth businesses using a strategic concept accurately based on the calculation of the demands of the youth. At present, youth businesses tend to be declarative and cause-oriented rather than practical m meeting the demands of both the society and the youth. At the same time, they are presented as a unit programme with Issues outlined as m a shopping list As a result, It is very difficult to estimate the effect of youth policy. Therefore, there IS an urgent need to specify the goal and target group of youth businesses, as well as to define the contents of activities m comprehensive terms. The execution of youth businesses should be undertaken m a more systematic manner for securing the necessary fund, and to make proper distribution of the fund to private groups and institutions possible.
Secondly, the target groups of youth businesses should be specified In fact, they are diverse. By considering the composition of the members of youth groups, the services they urgently require, the problems considered m advance, and the countermeasures for them, the target groups and contents of youth businesses should be chosen
Thirdly, local networking of youth businesses should be reinforced Youth businesses should not be limited in one sector In fact, they can be executed more comprehensively m cooperation with schools and the society The most Important thing in offering funds for youth businesses is to induce the coordination of schools, local groups, and national organisations
Support for the disadvantaged youth should be enforced. For their healthy development, both classes and leisure activities should be combined. The youth from low-income families still needs more social assistance although the target group should always be the youth in general. Traditionally, youth businesses or activities tended to be limited to the extracurricular function. However, they should be understood m more comprehensive terms that combine classes and leisure activities. The slump of learning at school can serve to make youth have a sense of failure beforehand m preparation to becoming an adult.
The concept of activities in youth policy should also be redefined to include more open and selective terms. At present, It reveals a strong emphasis on personality while disregarding training activities This is a very limited conceptualization. This should be made broader to include leisure, study, occupation, counselling, information, and participation, and to meet various demands of the youth.
Another Issue concerns funding for the youth and Its utilisation. Fund management should be focused more on each task related to youth works. Needless to say, the process of completing the above tasks should be thorough. Planning and securing enough budgets for unit works, distribution and utilisation of the fund, and estimation of fund unlisation should be done m a more systematic manner.
Fmally, practical traming m fostering youth leaders should be strengthened Employment information in the youth section should be offered to potential youth leaders. The national certification examination for youth leaders IS skewed to be theoretically oriented, while support for field training is considerably weak In order to overcome these problems, some form of internship prior to the examination, and the process of securing field experience after the examination should be made more solid and systematic. Furthermore, m order to maximize employment of qualified youth leaders, employment support activities should be reinforced.