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There was a wide difference between Oriental and Occidental civilization in the development of scientific history, especially after the 17th century, Joseph Needham (1900~1995 A.D.) raised the question, "Why were science and technology not developed in the Orient of modern age?" It is for this reason that we now refer to this question as "The Problem of Needham" according it his name. However, this problem has remained up until now and has not yet been dealt with.
In a Confucian society such as the Joseon dynasty, people who worked in science and technology were accorded the status of 'Chungin Specialists (專門職中人)' over the course of time. In this respect, we have to turn our attention to the activity of Chungin Specialists (專門職中人) in order to solve the problem put forth by Joseph Needham.
The official specialists in the Joseon dynasty were composed of interpreters, medical doctors, astronomers, lawyers, accountants or artists. Many Chungin Specialists (專門職中人) passed national examination, named Chabkoa(雜科), for advancement and their professions could be hereditary in the latter period of Joseon dynasty. The interpreters in the latter period of the Joseon dynasty arranged various methods to cope with science and technology as it related to national defense. They were involved in the importation of water buffalo horns (水牛角) from South-East Asia that were used to make bows. The amount tallied up to 70% of all officially imported materials. The guild called bow and hom(弓角契) disappeared in 1750. In 1592 (壬辰倭亂), during the Japanese invasion, the production of nitrates (焰硝) which are the main ingredient of gun powder was more important during the to the Joseon authorities. An interpreter named Hun Pyo (表憲) learned and introduced an extraction method that he learned from outside sources. After the war, nitrates (焰硝) were imported from M'ing (明), but this practice was discontinued following the 1627 Jurchen (女眞) Invasion (丁卯胡亂). In 1631, Doowon Jeong (鄭斗源), an envoy to Beijing, China, received nitrate soil, nitrate flowers and magazine rifles (鳥銃) from Rodrigez in China.
After Ching's (淸) Invasion in 1636 (丙子胡亂), it was generally accepted and encouraged to import nitrate illegally due to the national necessity. However, in the 8th year of King Hyojong (孝宗, 1657), an illegal importation of nitrate was detected in Shenyung Castle (鳳凰城). On the other hand, sulfur (硫黃) was imported from Japan through the illegal trade by interpreters.
In the 2nd and 3rd year of King Hyojong (孝宗, 1651 and 1652 A.D.), interpreters, directed by the Korean Government, such as Keunhaeng Kim (金謹行) and Heenam Hong (洪喜男), decided upon the price for 15,000 keun (斤) of sulfur in a discussion with the governor of Tsushima Island (對馬島) in Japan.
In the 17th year of King Sookjong (1691) the Korean Government noted that the interpreter to China, HyunJhang (張炫), had been demoted two levels as a result of his illegal import of 25 artillery pieces. This transaction had been detected by the Governor of Shenyung Castle (鳳凰城) in China a couple of years prior to the decision.
Following the 24th year of King Sookjong (1698), another interpreter, Jinam Kim (金指南) published a book entitled 'Sinjeon Jachobang (新傳煮硝方)' after mastering the gun powder production method used on the Liaotung Peninsula (遼東半島) in Ch’ing. His method was to mix nitrates, ash from the willow tree and sulfur in the ratio of 78:15:7. It was also his contribution to history to widen the northern territories by concluding the treaty concerning border lines between [oseon and China
Interpreter Wongyu Byun (卞元圭) met Hoongjang Lee (李鴻章) in China to research and buy weapons. However, the purchasing of weapons did not succeed because of the huge amounts funds required. His contribution also included sending f)l people (including 38 students) to the Tientsin (天津) Machine Factory in China in order to study weapons.
This was after the opening of a port and, even though l) young people from the middle class (中人) were included in the envoy group to China, their effect was not so great In 1882, the plan of importing small weapons which were worth 5,000 ryung (兩) was decided upon, In the 20th year of King Kojong (1883), a machine factory was established in Samcheong-dong in Seoul.
Among medical doctors, Joon Heo (許浚) was set up as a meritorious retainer (扈從功臣) after attending to his King during the Japanese invasion (壬辰倭亂). Donguibogam (東醫寶鑑), was comprised of internal medicine (內徑), external forms (外形), various diseases (雜病), medical decoctions (湯藥), along with acupuncture and moxibustion (鍼灸). As a complete encyclopedia about clinical study it was perfected in the 2nd year of Kwanghaegun (光海君). That enhanced the level of medical science during the Joseon period and built up independent cure means and Eastern medical science (東醫) in Asia.
Hyunggook jeon (全亨國), a member of the literati, was on record asserting that he had a body dissected during the Japanese invasion. Acupuncturist, Kwanghyun Baek (白光鉉) developed a bold surgical method. Jema Lee (李濟馬) divided the physical constitution of people into 4 characters and advanced medical science for the 4 groups (四象醫學). He wrote a medical book, Donguisoosebowon (東醫壽世保元). Seokyeong Ji (池錫永) learned about the skills required for inoculating people against smallpox (牛痘法) and he wrote the book, Woodoosinseol (牛痘新說).
Among astronomers, Youngsil Jhang (蔣英實) invented an automatic clock, Ja Gyeok Roo (自擊漏), developed an invention that utilized the energy of water in 1434. Yiyeong Song (宋以潁) made an automatic astronomical clock which followed the movements of the earth in the latter part of the 17th century. At the time it was the most advanced equipment in the world Joodeok Seong (成周悳 : 1759-?) wrote Gookjoyeoksanggo (國朝曆象考) and Seowoonkwanji (書雲觀志).
When we investigate official accountants (算員), the mathematics of the Joseon dynasty was firmly maintained by them. However, they were underdeveloped because of the lack of criticism amid mathematicians. Artists drew the portrait of king and made maps in the latter part of the Joseon dynasty.
Among the members of Handrick Hamel’s (?~1692) party who had drifted ashore in the Joseon period, there were some astronomers, medical doctors and technicians who were skilled with fowling pieces (鳥銃) and guns. Unfortunately the Joseon people lost a chance to learn about the Netherlands, by keeping the foreigners in custody for 13 years, before finally allowing them to escape from ]oseon at last. Neo-Confucianists in the Joseon period accepted western science as a religion that could quake the base of Neo-Confucianism, not as scientific technology. This western knowledge and Occidental civilization, which Silhakja (實學者), who lived during the Joseon period, had tried to understand, was transfigured into a civilization by Sino-centrism (中華主義) through Chinese characters. On the other hand, social knowledge, which could have altered modem knowledge, was restricted to the utility of socio-economic means at any rate. Unfortunately, the medical knowledge of Yakyong Jeong (丁若鏞) failed to connect with the economy of the Joseon dynasty because it was not related to government facilities like Hyeminseo (惠民署), or other medical practioners.
Silhakja (實學者) during the Joseon dynasty had not reached a popular stage through the translation, using the Korean alphabet, of western knowledge about science and technology. Comparatively speaking, the official interpreters or medical doctors in the Joseon dynasty were totally controlled by the Yangban (兩班) class. They could only get a chance to make their fortunes when it was the mission of the Joseon to dispatch them to China, or they could make their way with the Yangban (兩班). As a consequence, Chungin specialists (專門職中人) had to check themselves from importing western books, meeting missionary fathers, and translating or creating a popularization of western books as the court forbade these acts. This inhibited the chance where scientific civilization could have been popularized and blossomed in the latter period of the Joseon dynasty. We can say that almighty political power checked the development of science and technology after the 19th century in Joseon society.
In addition, the route of intermediary trade, where the official interpreters of the Joseon dynasty had played a leading role between China and Japan, changed after 1720 AD. Several hundred ships of Chinese merchant arrived in Nagasaki (長崎) and traded directly with the Japanese. As such, the Joseon Chungin Specialists, including official interpreters, lost their profit and had not remaining power to import western science and technology in the 19th century.
In a Confucian society such as the Joseon dynasty, people who worked in science and technology were accorded the status of 'Chungin Specialists (專門職中人)' over the course of time. In this respect, we have to turn our attention to the activity of Chungin Specialists (專門職中人) in order to solve the problem put forth by Joseph Needham.
The official specialists in the Joseon dynasty were composed of interpreters, medical doctors, astronomers, lawyers, accountants or artists. Many Chungin Specialists (專門職中人) passed national examination, named Chabkoa(雜科), for advancement and their professions could be hereditary in the latter period of Joseon dynasty. The interpreters in the latter period of the Joseon dynasty arranged various methods to cope with science and technology as it related to national defense. They were involved in the importation of water buffalo horns (水牛角) from South-East Asia that were used to make bows. The amount tallied up to 70% of all officially imported materials. The guild called bow and hom(弓角契) disappeared in 1750. In 1592 (壬辰倭亂), during the Japanese invasion, the production of nitrates (焰硝) which are the main ingredient of gun powder was more important during the to the Joseon authorities. An interpreter named Hun Pyo (表憲) learned and introduced an extraction method that he learned from outside sources. After the war, nitrates (焰硝) were imported from M'ing (明), but this practice was discontinued following the 1627 Jurchen (女眞) Invasion (丁卯胡亂). In 1631, Doowon Jeong (鄭斗源), an envoy to Beijing, China, received nitrate soil, nitrate flowers and magazine rifles (鳥銃) from Rodrigez in China.
After Ching's (淸) Invasion in 1636 (丙子胡亂), it was generally accepted and encouraged to import nitrate illegally due to the national necessity. However, in the 8th year of King Hyojong (孝宗, 1657), an illegal importation of nitrate was detected in Shenyung Castle (鳳凰城). On the other hand, sulfur (硫黃) was imported from Japan through the illegal trade by interpreters.
In the 2nd and 3rd year of King Hyojong (孝宗, 1651 and 1652 A.D.), interpreters, directed by the Korean Government, such as Keunhaeng Kim (金謹行) and Heenam Hong (洪喜男), decided upon the price for 15,000 keun (斤) of sulfur in a discussion with the governor of Tsushima Island (對馬島) in Japan.
In the 17th year of King Sookjong (1691) the Korean Government noted that the interpreter to China, HyunJhang (張炫), had been demoted two levels as a result of his illegal import of 25 artillery pieces. This transaction had been detected by the Governor of Shenyung Castle (鳳凰城) in China a couple of years prior to the decision.
Following the 24th year of King Sookjong (1698), another interpreter, Jinam Kim (金指南) published a book entitled 'Sinjeon Jachobang (新傳煮硝方)' after mastering the gun powder production method used on the Liaotung Peninsula (遼東半島) in Ch’ing. His method was to mix nitrates, ash from the willow tree and sulfur in the ratio of 78:15:7. It was also his contribution to history to widen the northern territories by concluding the treaty concerning border lines between [oseon and China
Interpreter Wongyu Byun (卞元圭) met Hoongjang Lee (李鴻章) in China to research and buy weapons. However, the purchasing of weapons did not succeed because of the huge amounts funds required. His contribution also included sending f)l people (including 38 students) to the Tientsin (天津) Machine Factory in China in order to study weapons.
This was after the opening of a port and, even though l) young people from the middle class (中人) were included in the envoy group to China, their effect was not so great In 1882, the plan of importing small weapons which were worth 5,000 ryung (兩) was decided upon, In the 20th year of King Kojong (1883), a machine factory was established in Samcheong-dong in Seoul.
Among medical doctors, Joon Heo (許浚) was set up as a meritorious retainer (扈從功臣) after attending to his King during the Japanese invasion (壬辰倭亂). Donguibogam (東醫寶鑑), was comprised of internal medicine (內徑), external forms (外形), various diseases (雜病), medical decoctions (湯藥), along with acupuncture and moxibustion (鍼灸). As a complete encyclopedia about clinical study it was perfected in the 2nd year of Kwanghaegun (光海君). That enhanced the level of medical science during the Joseon period and built up independent cure means and Eastern medical science (東醫) in Asia.
Hyunggook jeon (全亨國), a member of the literati, was on record asserting that he had a body dissected during the Japanese invasion. Acupuncturist, Kwanghyun Baek (白光鉉) developed a bold surgical method. Jema Lee (李濟馬) divided the physical constitution of people into 4 characters and advanced medical science for the 4 groups (四象醫學). He wrote a medical book, Donguisoosebowon (東醫壽世保元). Seokyeong Ji (池錫永) learned about the skills required for inoculating people against smallpox (牛痘法) and he wrote the book, Woodoosinseol (牛痘新說).
Among astronomers, Youngsil Jhang (蔣英實) invented an automatic clock, Ja Gyeok Roo (自擊漏), developed an invention that utilized the energy of water in 1434. Yiyeong Song (宋以潁) made an automatic astronomical clock which followed the movements of the earth in the latter part of the 17th century. At the time it was the most advanced equipment in the world Joodeok Seong (成周悳 : 1759-?) wrote Gookjoyeoksanggo (國朝曆象考) and Seowoonkwanji (書雲觀志).
When we investigate official accountants (算員), the mathematics of the Joseon dynasty was firmly maintained by them. However, they were underdeveloped because of the lack of criticism amid mathematicians. Artists drew the portrait of king and made maps in the latter part of the Joseon dynasty.
Among the members of Handrick Hamel’s (?~1692) party who had drifted ashore in the Joseon period, there were some astronomers, medical doctors and technicians who were skilled with fowling pieces (鳥銃) and guns. Unfortunately the Joseon people lost a chance to learn about the Netherlands, by keeping the foreigners in custody for 13 years, before finally allowing them to escape from ]oseon at last. Neo-Confucianists in the Joseon period accepted western science as a religion that could quake the base of Neo-Confucianism, not as scientific technology. This western knowledge and Occidental civilization, which Silhakja (實學者), who lived during the Joseon period, had tried to understand, was transfigured into a civilization by Sino-centrism (中華主義) through Chinese characters. On the other hand, social knowledge, which could have altered modem knowledge, was restricted to the utility of socio-economic means at any rate. Unfortunately, the medical knowledge of Yakyong Jeong (丁若鏞) failed to connect with the economy of the Joseon dynasty because it was not related to government facilities like Hyeminseo (惠民署), or other medical practioners.
Silhakja (實學者) during the Joseon dynasty had not reached a popular stage through the translation, using the Korean alphabet, of western knowledge about science and technology. Comparatively speaking, the official interpreters or medical doctors in the Joseon dynasty were totally controlled by the Yangban (兩班) class. They could only get a chance to make their fortunes when it was the mission of the Joseon to dispatch them to China, or they could make their way with the Yangban (兩班). As a consequence, Chungin specialists (專門職中人) had to check themselves from importing western books, meeting missionary fathers, and translating or creating a popularization of western books as the court forbade these acts. This inhibited the chance where scientific civilization could have been popularized and blossomed in the latter period of the Joseon dynasty. We can say that almighty political power checked the development of science and technology after the 19th century in Joseon society.
In addition, the route of intermediary trade, where the official interpreters of the Joseon dynasty had played a leading role between China and Japan, changed after 1720 AD. Several hundred ships of Chinese merchant arrived in Nagasaki (長崎) and traded directly with the Japanese. As such, the Joseon Chungin Specialists, including official interpreters, lost their profit and had not remaining power to import western science and technology in the 19th century.
목차
Ⅰ. 머리말
Ⅱ. 조선의 雜科와 中人身分
Ⅲ. 中人들의 活動
Ⅳ. 맺음말
Abstract
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