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This essay aims to examine the China's identity, with a focus on tracking and portraying key moments in China(1793-2008).
China regarded itself as the center of the world, and in this concept, the world was China itself. In 1793, Great Britain sent Lord George Macartney on a diplomatic mission to the Qing dynasty. China considered the British embassy only as a tributary mission and treated it as such. Kowtow meaning submission before the emperor of China was required, but Macartney didn't perform 'three kneelings and nine head knockings' to maintain the dignity of the Britain. Also China had a sense of superiority, believing that China was self-sufficient and had nothing to gain by trading with the barbarians. But after China's defeat in the Opium War, the sense of superiority was shattered. The Opium War made China open against the will of the China, and people came to realize that China was no longer the best. China was forced to give up the tribute system and accept unequal treaty system. China became the arena of competition of imperialist powers.
In the early years of the 20th century, with the prevailing theory of Social Darwinism, Chinese intellectuals sought to make China strong so as to survive on the battlefields of 'survival of the fittest'. At that time, the national survival was a matter of life and death to the Chinese. In this vein, the race matter of an 'Exhibition of the Races of Man' at Osaka in 1903 was very symbolic. For the Chinese students studying in Japan, it was a humiliating experience, because the exhibition initially planned to display the inferior races. Students lamented the fact that 'we Chinese' were going to be classified together with other six inferior races, finally they successfully opposed that plan. At that time when China's national survival had become a national obsession, Liang Qi-chao felt a responsibility of striving for national identity and survival. He especially put emphasis on solidarity that was required of Chinese people if China was to survive among many competitive nation-states. So Liang suggested the concepts of Daminzu zhuyi(大民族主義) and Zhonghua minzu(中華民族). In these concepts, the definition of 'Chinese' was expanded to include non-Han ethnicities as part of a comprehensive Chinese nation. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen intended to succeed to those concepts including eventual Sinicization, so as to unite all of the different ethnicities of China, mainly composed of the five major groups. It was mainly due to the realization that a narrow definition of Chinese would result in the loss of the territorial legacy of the Qing empire. Up to now, the PRC has asserted that China is unified under the name Zhonghua, and this is merely to continue the nationalistic discourse of the early years of the 20th century.
Now China has the ability to host the international event, for example, 2008 Olympic is going to be held in Beijing, and Expo 2010 will be held in Shanghai. In the early years of the 21th century, China is emerging as a major world power. But the painful recollection of China's suffering at the hands of imperialist powers has continued to be a source of Chines nationalistic sentiment. So Chinese nationalism has the potential to become ultranationalism especially with regard to the territorial integrity. At the time of the Olympics, the Tibet crisis stimulates Chinese nationalism. The PRC has faced international blame over its crackdown on protests in Tibet against Chinese rule, and the Chinese are over-reactive toward outside pressures. They are driven by a sense of national urgency. Nevertheless we must know Chinese nationalism is fundamentally an imperialist ideology which in practice has led to the oppression of minority group such as Tibetans and the repression against domestic dissent in the name of national urgency. As Terrill points out, China has never abandoned the attitude as an empire. It looks like nation-building is still going on there. There is no fixed identity, and 'China' is also merely a construction representing different conditions of the relationship.
China regarded itself as the center of the world, and in this concept, the world was China itself. In 1793, Great Britain sent Lord George Macartney on a diplomatic mission to the Qing dynasty. China considered the British embassy only as a tributary mission and treated it as such. Kowtow meaning submission before the emperor of China was required, but Macartney didn't perform 'three kneelings and nine head knockings' to maintain the dignity of the Britain. Also China had a sense of superiority, believing that China was self-sufficient and had nothing to gain by trading with the barbarians. But after China's defeat in the Opium War, the sense of superiority was shattered. The Opium War made China open against the will of the China, and people came to realize that China was no longer the best. China was forced to give up the tribute system and accept unequal treaty system. China became the arena of competition of imperialist powers.
In the early years of the 20th century, with the prevailing theory of Social Darwinism, Chinese intellectuals sought to make China strong so as to survive on the battlefields of 'survival of the fittest'. At that time, the national survival was a matter of life and death to the Chinese. In this vein, the race matter of an 'Exhibition of the Races of Man' at Osaka in 1903 was very symbolic. For the Chinese students studying in Japan, it was a humiliating experience, because the exhibition initially planned to display the inferior races. Students lamented the fact that 'we Chinese' were going to be classified together with other six inferior races, finally they successfully opposed that plan. At that time when China's national survival had become a national obsession, Liang Qi-chao felt a responsibility of striving for national identity and survival. He especially put emphasis on solidarity that was required of Chinese people if China was to survive among many competitive nation-states. So Liang suggested the concepts of Daminzu zhuyi(大民族主義) and Zhonghua minzu(中華民族). In these concepts, the definition of 'Chinese' was expanded to include non-Han ethnicities as part of a comprehensive Chinese nation. After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen intended to succeed to those concepts including eventual Sinicization, so as to unite all of the different ethnicities of China, mainly composed of the five major groups. It was mainly due to the realization that a narrow definition of Chinese would result in the loss of the territorial legacy of the Qing empire. Up to now, the PRC has asserted that China is unified under the name Zhonghua, and this is merely to continue the nationalistic discourse of the early years of the 20th century.
Now China has the ability to host the international event, for example, 2008 Olympic is going to be held in Beijing, and Expo 2010 will be held in Shanghai. In the early years of the 21th century, China is emerging as a major world power. But the painful recollection of China's suffering at the hands of imperialist powers has continued to be a source of Chines nationalistic sentiment. So Chinese nationalism has the potential to become ultranationalism especially with regard to the territorial integrity. At the time of the Olympics, the Tibet crisis stimulates Chinese nationalism. The PRC has faced international blame over its crackdown on protests in Tibet against Chinese rule, and the Chinese are over-reactive toward outside pressures. They are driven by a sense of national urgency. Nevertheless we must know Chinese nationalism is fundamentally an imperialist ideology which in practice has led to the oppression of minority group such as Tibetans and the repression against domestic dissent in the name of national urgency. As Terrill points out, China has never abandoned the attitude as an empire. It looks like nation-building is still going on there. There is no fixed identity, and 'China' is also merely a construction representing different conditions of the relationship.
목차
1. 1793 매카트니 사건 - 위기의 전조
2. 1842 아편전쟁의 패배 - 위기의 폭발, 관계의 역전
3. 20세기 초 중국 - 적자생존을 위하여
4. 2008 중국의 티베트 - 중국 만들기는 완성되었는가
〈參考文獻〉
〈ABSTRACT〉
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