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논문 기본 정보
- 자료유형
- 학술저널
- 저자정보
- 저널정보
- The Academy of Korean Studies THE REVIEW OF KOREAN STUDIES THE REVIEW OF KOREAN STUDIES Vol.7 No.2 JUNE 2004
- 발행연도
- 2004.6
- 수록면
- 107 - 136 (30page)
이용수
초록· 키워드
오류제보하기
Trading of goods of equal value began in the Neolithic Age in the form of reciprocal exchanges between communities. Moreover, the act of exchange began between groups rather than between individuals within the same group, and the chief of the community initiated trade. This situation continues in a more consolidated form after the Bronze Age when community order is dissolved and political society forms. The form of ruling power, however, changes to regional groups or the chieftain (首長) class of small states, and political and diplomatic characteristics in external trade become more prominent.
It seems that the appearance of civilians as occupational merchants, no matter how insignificant, occurred as mankind entered the Iron Age. The wealthy class that accumulated wealth through trading were called “homin” (wealthy commoner) or “daega” (prosperous family). This class participated in external trade until the beginning of the ancient states, but their activities became restricted to domestic commerce as the centralized royal family slowly monopolized the rights to external trade. As the system of centralized authority became reorganized, sovereignty in ancient times attempted to gain control over not only external trade but domestic commerce as well. However, the domain of the civilian material flow system persistently maintained its existence.
Originally, a shi (市, market) was a place where the most important meetings of regional groups were held and where diverse activities such as official business, justice, and redistribution were carried out. Incidental exchange did occur during the process of taxing and redistributing items used in sacrificial rituals, and commercial transactions grew in each locality as the production of merchandise and the material flow of goods developed outside the shi. This was then absorbed as part of the state order with the establishment of official markets during the Three Kingdoms period. The sovereignty in ancient times that had monopolized external trade after the establishment of the system of centralized authority took control over the two domains of trade by controlling the domain of domestic commerce through the official merchant and the official market system.
In the case of Silla, conversion from priesthood to pumju became systematized at some point in time after the reign of Cheomhae isageum to the beginning of the maripgan (aka maripkan, a form of ruler) period, and pumju emerged as the first government financial institution. In specific regions, warehouse facilities, the powerful economic foundation of regional groups, were established as “sigeup” (食邑), or “stipend village” (祿邑, land given to government officials as salary) of highranking noblemen instead of being incorporated into the state’s financial organization after a system of ordinance was created in the sixth century.
From mid-Silla, the “changbu” (倉部, a government office of finance) created the structure of left warehouse and right warehouse, which collected taxes from goods coming in from all directions and distributed operating expenses as well as pay the centralized government bu (political units based on regions and tribes), noblemen, and bureaucrats after the unification of the Three Kingdoms. Furthermore, the high-ranking noblemen of Silla sometimes sold agricultural and stock products from privately operated workshops, farmsteads, or ranches through agents. Some of the products were exported abroad. It seems that noblemen and the homin who succeeded the traditional homin or daega led the commerce in distant places with small-sized merchant groups until the middle of the Silla period.
Surplus products from civilian manufactures must have been procured without incident in order for commerce concentrated in major cities to be active. It became difficult to satisfy such a precondition in the late Silla period, however, because the farmer and handicraft manufacturing classes collapsed, which led to difficulty in collecting taxes.
The downfall of the direct manufacturing class brought about a reduction in the activities of official merchants, but the domain of civilian commerce grew because the commoners who experienced this downfall engaged in commerce. Thus, the commercial activities of the homin class that started at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period continued. Although they cannot be called occupational merchants, noblemen and monasteries assisted in encroaching upon the material flow system led by the state by participating in commerce with their own autonomous production organizations.
Civilian markets emerged in the capital city as civilian commerce became active, and the autonomy of the official markets increased so that they could break away from the control of the state. The sphere of civilian commerce not only expanded its territory in domestic commerce but also entered into external trade as of the end of the middle period. As can be seen in the example of Jangbogo, commoners from the province sometimes led external trade, especially at the end of Silla. This is different from the situation where the domain of state material flow controlled domestic and external commerce until the mid-Silla period. Provincial forces that maintained their independence in various locations at the time became a substitute for the material flow system led by the state during the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla period not only by participating in domestic and external trade but also by forming an autonomous network for material flow based on political and military backings and taxes collected in the regions which they ruled.
It seems that the appearance of civilians as occupational merchants, no matter how insignificant, occurred as mankind entered the Iron Age. The wealthy class that accumulated wealth through trading were called “homin” (wealthy commoner) or “daega” (prosperous family). This class participated in external trade until the beginning of the ancient states, but their activities became restricted to domestic commerce as the centralized royal family slowly monopolized the rights to external trade. As the system of centralized authority became reorganized, sovereignty in ancient times attempted to gain control over not only external trade but domestic commerce as well. However, the domain of the civilian material flow system persistently maintained its existence.
Originally, a shi (市, market) was a place where the most important meetings of regional groups were held and where diverse activities such as official business, justice, and redistribution were carried out. Incidental exchange did occur during the process of taxing and redistributing items used in sacrificial rituals, and commercial transactions grew in each locality as the production of merchandise and the material flow of goods developed outside the shi. This was then absorbed as part of the state order with the establishment of official markets during the Three Kingdoms period. The sovereignty in ancient times that had monopolized external trade after the establishment of the system of centralized authority took control over the two domains of trade by controlling the domain of domestic commerce through the official merchant and the official market system.
In the case of Silla, conversion from priesthood to pumju became systematized at some point in time after the reign of Cheomhae isageum to the beginning of the maripgan (aka maripkan, a form of ruler) period, and pumju emerged as the first government financial institution. In specific regions, warehouse facilities, the powerful economic foundation of regional groups, were established as “sigeup” (食邑), or “stipend village” (祿邑, land given to government officials as salary) of highranking noblemen instead of being incorporated into the state’s financial organization after a system of ordinance was created in the sixth century.
From mid-Silla, the “changbu” (倉部, a government office of finance) created the structure of left warehouse and right warehouse, which collected taxes from goods coming in from all directions and distributed operating expenses as well as pay the centralized government bu (political units based on regions and tribes), noblemen, and bureaucrats after the unification of the Three Kingdoms. Furthermore, the high-ranking noblemen of Silla sometimes sold agricultural and stock products from privately operated workshops, farmsteads, or ranches through agents. Some of the products were exported abroad. It seems that noblemen and the homin who succeeded the traditional homin or daega led the commerce in distant places with small-sized merchant groups until the middle of the Silla period.
Surplus products from civilian manufactures must have been procured without incident in order for commerce concentrated in major cities to be active. It became difficult to satisfy such a precondition in the late Silla period, however, because the farmer and handicraft manufacturing classes collapsed, which led to difficulty in collecting taxes.
The downfall of the direct manufacturing class brought about a reduction in the activities of official merchants, but the domain of civilian commerce grew because the commoners who experienced this downfall engaged in commerce. Thus, the commercial activities of the homin class that started at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period continued. Although they cannot be called occupational merchants, noblemen and monasteries assisted in encroaching upon the material flow system led by the state by participating in commerce with their own autonomous production organizations.
Civilian markets emerged in the capital city as civilian commerce became active, and the autonomy of the official markets increased so that they could break away from the control of the state. The sphere of civilian commerce not only expanded its territory in domestic commerce but also entered into external trade as of the end of the middle period. As can be seen in the example of Jangbogo, commoners from the province sometimes led external trade, especially at the end of Silla. This is different from the situation where the domain of state material flow controlled domestic and external commerce until the mid-Silla period. Provincial forces that maintained their independence in various locations at the time became a substitute for the material flow system led by the state during the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla period not only by participating in domestic and external trade but also by forming an autonomous network for material flow based on political and military backings and taxes collected in the regions which they ruled.
목차
Introduction: The Concept of Material Flow, Exchange, and Trade
External Trade and the Origin of Private Commerce
Formation and Growth of the Material Flow System Led by the State
Transformation of the Material Flow System towards the End of Silla and the Beginning of Goryeo
Conclusion
References
참고문헌 (45)
참고문헌 신청
, 1979 , An Anthology of Korean Buddhism
Gao Bing , 1962 , TheCoins Excavated in Ji-an of Jilin State in China
Ham Sun-seop , 1998 , Cheonan cheongdangdong yujeokeul tonghae bonmahanui daeoegyoseop:(Masan’s Foreign Negotiations as Viewed throughthe Relics of Cheongdang-dong, Cheonan).
Han Sang-bok , 1985 , Introduction to Cultural Anthropology
Han Yeong-hee , 1997 , Sinseoggisidaeui saengeopgwa sahoe-gyoyeok:Livelihood and Society in the Neolithic Period II
Gao Bing , 1962 , TheCoins Excavated in Ji-an of Jilin State in China
Ham Sun-seop , 1998 , Cheonan cheongdangdong yujeokeul tonghae bonmahanui daeoegyoseop:(Masan’s Foreign Negotiations as Viewed throughthe Relics of Cheongdang-dong, Cheonan).
Han Sang-bok , 1985 , Introduction to Cultural Anthropology
Han Yeong-hee , 1997 , Sinseoggisidaeui saengeopgwa sahoe-gyoyeok:Livelihood and Society in the Neolithic Period II
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